Early History of Oxford University

There has been a dwelling around Oxford since Roman times. However nothing permanent was established until about 700 AD when the hamlet of Oxnaforda became a strategic place between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex. After the Norman conquest the town was fortifies from about 1070. Some of these city walls remain and one of the mounds is still in existence (by the Old Prison)

Origins of the University.

The first evidence of learning in Oxford could be traced back to 720 AD when the local ruler King Didan founded a nunnery for his devout daughter Frideswide. This was built in the grounds of Christ Chuch Cathedral. This nunnery later dissolved but it was taken over by a community of Anglican monks in about 1120. They rebuilt the chapel and dedicated the church to St Frideswide. This was the foundation for Christ Church Cathedral.

By 1167 there were 3 small monastic schools of learning in Oxford, of which the community in Christ Church was one. Around this t ime of 1167 many English scholars were forced to flee the University of Paris. The current King, Henry II encouraged many of these to come to Oxford and continue their studies their. The patronage of Henry II was important for the development of Oxford as a seat of learning.

The scholars brought the traditional curriculam from Paris. All learning was under the Chuch of Rome and all scholars and Masters were in holy orders and used to wear a long black gown. These scholars were not of the nobility but often from humble origins but they played an important role in the administration of the state being the small % of the literate population.

In 1214 Oxford was recognised as a university by the Church and the first Chancellor was appointed. This attracted many scholars to come. These young boisterous scholars often created friction and conflict with the local towns people and during this century there were frequently town versus gown riots which left a couple of peop le dead. Because of this many scholars moved to other towns such as Cambridge leading to the formation of other universities.

In the 13th Century many masters created halls of residence to protect scholars from local hostility. Also in the 13th century there appeared the first of the University colleges. Colleges were different to the halls of residence because they were not tied to the monastic tradition. In fact many colleges prevented their members from taking monastic vows. This enabled more adventurous teaching than in the monastic halls. The colleges were like a secular response to the monastic halls of residence.

Oxford Colleges were usually founded by rich churchmen who had no offspring to leave their wealth. Thus it was seen as a commendable act to create a college and endow it with wealth. Because of their greater wealth and permanence the colleges flourished and gradually began to overtake and absorb the smaller, more impermanent halls.

The first 3 colleges to be set up were University college, Merton and Balliol. It is much disputed which is the oldest and depends on how you define the foundation of a college. St Edmunds Hall can claim to be the oldest place of teaching have been a medieval hall and later making the transition to a full college. With the establishment of colleges university life became more regulated. It became more common for scholars to live in the same college and be taught by the resident masters.

In the 14th and 15th Century another 7 colleges came into existence including Exeter, Oriel, Queens, new college, Lincoln, All Souls, and Magdalen.

In the 16th century the most important development was the founding of Christ Church by king Henry VIII. It was founded in 1546 despite the turbulence created by the reformation. But with royal approval the University was protected and given a higher profile. Following the reformation the composition of university scholars started to change. In stead of monastic scholars it was increasingly the middle classes who wanted to send their sons to be taught. These gentleman commoners were willing to pay for their tuition. This enabled an increased expansion of the university.

Richard is an economics teacher in Oxford and is a member of the Sri Chinmoy Centre. Richard is also a keen photographer and adds many photos of Oxford to his blog.

Author:: Richard Pettinger
Keywords:: Oxford, History
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The Sixties

A decade that stands out above the rest of our worlds history as a time of revolutionary changes from all over the globe - changes that even effected outer space. There was unprecedented levels of sexual freedom celebrated among the worlds youth, and teenagers around the world revolted against the generations before them. Radio brought the people completely new sounds in music, with the chart toppers fighting over the number one spots each week. The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, Bob Dylan, Elvis Presley, among others, released one hit after another throughout the sixties.

Stardom the likes that no one had ever experienced before surrounded The Beatles, both in the UK and in the United States. Jimi Hendrix played guitar like no one had ever heard it played previously, and remains one of the worlds favorite guitar players of all time. There were presidential assassinations, as well as deaths of famous people who were killed for standing up for their beliefs and le ading others to make changes; Martin Luther King, JR and Malcolm X.

The sixties were a time of innovation, new products and services were developed, and discoveries of technological advances led to the first man to walk on the moon, and placing a satellite in orbit.

In the UK, Parliament made abortion legal in 1967, as a result of the changing ideals of sex and love. Fashion and clothing styles changed, skirts became shorter, jeans became tighter, and womens clothing in particular just became much more revealing than it had ever been socially acceptable previously. Mini-skirts were the norm, and models like Twiggy reinforced in the young peoples eyes that thin was in. Young ladies around the globe began starving themselves to try and fit the image, leading to eating disorders and image issues that women are still dealing with to this day.

The sixties were also the time of the infamous WOODSTOCK, an outdoor concert held in upstate New York. Hundreds of t housands of people gathered in a vacant field to hear some of the most popular musicians and bands on a handmade stage. There was rain, there was mud, there were landslides and total chaos as no one expected that many people to show up.

Amazingly, there was no money made at the event, as tickets were never actually sold and people just swarmed the makeshift gates to get into the concert area. Musicians were brought in with helicopters, and took the stage to give what was undoubtedly their most memorable performances of all time. Most of the people couldnt even hear the music, they were located so far away from the stage- but the experience of the weekend was beyond anything anyone had ever known. There have been attempts to recreate the wonder of Woodstock, but there will never be another event like it- our current world would require far more security to keep people safe, and even with the 450,000 individuals who spent the weekend in Woodstock, less than 4 were kill ed - you can be sure that the numbers would certainly be higher if such an event was to take place in our current times.

Phil Edwards is a freelance writer and co-author of http://www.sixties.gb.com/ and http://www.unit-storage.com

Author:: Phil Edwards
Keywords:: Sixites, 1960's
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The Beothuk

Canada is an emancipated country in the relative scheme of things. But it has a dark history that some people aren't aware of, and others would like to keep it that way. In the early 20th century the last Beothuk Indian met her death after various parties encouraged other Indians (Micmac) to hunt people to their extinction. It is true that the Beothuk stole merchandise but it is also true that their culture assumed that what wasn't being used was for the common people to use and that those who weren't using the canoe or boat wouldn't mind if it was borrowed. In time they returned the goods if they were given a chance.

The debate in scholarly journals would suggest this was part of the difficulty and that there is little proof there was a concerted effort to eradicate the Beothuk. What truth in that suspicion of mine actually exists is up to you to decide. Clearly there will be no conclusive documentation I can provide; but there might be a reason to eliminate these p eople who are probably the cause of the moniker 'red-men'. They would smear their body with the spiritual red ochre that had been part of their cosmogony since the time of the ancient copper trade to Isle Royale. This was a protection from evil spirits. Obviously it didn't work in this world when the European heathen arrived to dispossess all natives and their quaint attitudes that had built up over thousands of years. The protection was inadequate to protect what may have been the remnants of the Keltic 'Brotherhood' that first inter-mingled in North America. Their canoe or boat construction is unlike any other and Farley Mowat certainly thinks they were in touch with the Scots and Celts since the 8th century AD. There is a burial that archaeologists have found that interests me and I hope some day they do genetic testing on the body to see if they can track or trace the genetic material to Ireland or Norway. This body had been disinterred or taken out of its grave and then the bones were covered with red ochre. I believe this was a high priest or shaman who had the knowledge of his ancestors from Druidic Europe. The crouched position of the skeleton is reminiscent of some Scythian and Keltic burials as well as those near Mt. Carmel Neanderthal back to 150,000 years ago.

The fact is, no real attempt was made to deal with their culture and keep these people alive. Their lands covered the territory from Ungava Bay to Newfoundland at one time and there are lots of Norse settlements in this area so academics no doubt would say 'So What' if there is genetic material in these or other bones that ties in to Europe. They might even re-iterate their claim that there is no proof of cultural impact and the integration of the few Europeans who settled here is proof of their contention. My attitude is that the Algonkian and other Indians who encouraged sex before marriage and enjoyed the intermingling of species, races and culture were heavily and sp iritually impacted by 'messengers' who were white and often Druidic. There is far more proof than just the Scandinavian sweat house design or pottery. The most important proof is the very attitudes of brotherhood and community that allow people to use and share the wealth of the land and aren't so much into being rich. There are still 'primitive' savages (?) in Brazil like the Yanomami who are being dispossessed and eliminated in the name of 'progress; which is an extension of the concept of 'Manifest Destiny', and an ethic that is more of a real theft of property than any Beothuk ever did to his fellow man.

Pierre Berton is a highly respected Canadian author and historian who tells the story with appropriate documentation of the extinction of these once fun-loving and free people. It is a black mark on our collective consciousness and heritage made all the worse by a lack of awareness and transparency about what really happened. The effort to keep the knowledge of the 'travelers' and messengers or other agents of worldwide ecumenicism continues unabated and with something close to evil intent. It is entirely possible that courts would decide the white men were invaders and destroyers of a culture and people who had every legal and moral right to expect the newcomers to act like the white men that had come to live with them and trade the previous ten thousand or more years. It is possible that we all might agree the Paradise that was North America had a better form of land use and education or health or extended family management akin to the Kelts; and in line with the purpose God wants us to fulfill.

Author of Diverse Druids
Columnist for The ES Press Magzine
World-Mysteries.com guest 'expert'

Author:: Robert Baird
Keywords:: Redskins, Genocide, Mori ori, Alaskan Mummy-people,
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The Different Styles of Inuit Sculptures

At first, all Inuit soapstone Sculptures from the Arctic may look alike. However, there are variances in Artistic styles among the different Inuit Art producing communities. Although all communities produce Inuit Sculptures featuring both animal and human subjects, some seem to do more animals while others do more people figures. Some communities make their subjects appear quite realistic with lots of high detail while in others, a more crude and primitive look is preferred. There are Inuit Sculptures that have a highly polished finishes and some that are the complete opposite where they are left dull and unpolished.

Some areas specialize in producing small scale miniatures much like the Artwork by their ancestors who first came into contact with white men. Inuit Sculpture can range from quite conservative to bold or even wildly outrageous. Scenes can be playful like a piece depicting two Inuit children playing or with a sense of humor like a walrus waving. On the other end, transformation and shamanic pieces can look disturbing or even frightening to some. Hunting scenes can portray the gory realities of life and death in nature.

One thing that all Inuit Sculptures have in common is that they show the fact that Inuit people have deep connections with their family life, their natural surroundings and spiritual beliefs. It is interesting to observe that even if some Inuit Artists have converted to Christianity as their religion, they may still include Inuit spirituality and legends as a big pArt of their lives. This is portrayed in some of their Inuit Sculpture and other Artwork.

The differences in Artistic style are pArtly due to the different types of stone and other materials available in each community as well as regional preferences. Of cours e there can be outside influences when Inuit Artists travel from community to community. This is pArticularly the case with larger growing communities like Iqaluit which has seen an influx of Inuit from other pArts of Nunavut ever since becoming its capital. One can find a variety and blending of Inuit Art styles here. A longer version of this Article which describes the different styles of Inuit Sculptures from different Canadian Arctic regions can be found at the Free Spirit Gallery website.

Clint Leung is owner of Free Spirit Gallery http://www.FreeSpiritGallery.ca, an online gallery specializing in Inuit Eskimo and Northwest Native American Art including carvings, Sculpture and prints. Free Spirit Gallery has numerous information resource Articles with photos of authentic Inuit and Native Ind ian Art as well as free eCards.

Author:: Clint Leung
Keywords:: Inuit, Art, Sculpture, Sculptures, Canadian, Arctic
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Mythology and Parables in Modern Communication Part 3

Our Self is the true center of our being and the place from which our individual truth emanates. Its where we can come to know our passions, our place in the world, our purpose and our destiny. Without our Self we truly have nothing, except the reference structures around us which are now crumbling. Yes, crumbling! The evidence is there; we see it every day in the media. To clarify, crumbling here does not mean total disintegration, although some would argue that is indeed the case. To me it means a rather serious Reshuffling.

The signs or symbols that define this rising Era are the Self at the center of the personality and the Soul as its Spiritual counterpart. Ego now belongs to the dying era that we are leaving behind. Self and Soul are inextricably intertwined. They are one and the same at a fundamental level like Particle and Wave in Physics, which both describe the electron. Self and Soul are the same because they come from our Divine Nature which, by the way, does not reside anywhere but inside of Us. You, We, I, are the source of our Being and the home for this Divinity. You, We, I, are God, incarnate in a body.

Now, if I say to you - Trust Your Self! Believe in Your Self! Be Your Self! can you in any way go wrong? Can you say Hes lying, I shouldnt trust myself? Can you say I cant trust him because hes telling me to trust me? We could go on with more examples, but you can already see that this argument becomes absurd. Trusting your Self and connecting with your Soul are essential to being who you are. And from that perspective, they cannot be questioned. Because, if you cant trust your Self and you cant believe in your Soul, then nothing you believe in has value!

Here is the inherent beauty of Myth. Whether its a story or a parable, their simple truth is undeniable, unmistakable, because they point to You; they are a mirror to You. You are free to use them or not, to agree or not. They are not dictates, they are reference points. Parables are also Myths by the way, teaching tools in much the same way. They were the counterpart to Myths during Christs era. Today, movies, books, television and music tell the stories that men and women on hilltops used to recite so long ago. Yes, Parables or Myths are still being told to us today.

Alright, so back to Trust Yourself now, what does that mean? It means: Feel what your feel; Speak your truth; Acknowledge your mistakes; Do your very best; Pray for guidance; and LISTEN! Yes, Listen to that guidance that bubbles up from within you, from your Heart, or Feeling Center. There it is in action your Feelings; your Inner Guidance; the I Am That I Am, all at work inside of you to Give You the Truth about You!

How can you go wrong? You cant.

How can you say no? You cannot.

How can you go forward? Right Now!

With hope, determination and clear-headedness, you can activate that Power that is Your s. So you can be true to You, which is He, and bring forward those Gifts which are Yours to share with the World.

Now every once in a while, something happens in Life that can shake us up. For some, it could be a course of study. For others, it could be a movie, a life crisis, a particular song, a major loss, a trauma or similar challenge. A good crisis or major loss can be a great waker-upper. As an example, my own changes leading to the present began about 12 years ago, after my wife took ill with Multiple Sclerosis. I was scared and started listening more inwardly.

Until then I was a fairly traditional psychotherapist, plying my craft as I was trained to do. Mixing in some intuition with other guidance was part of my style and I got by. Then one day, after this crisis hit, I started writing. Actually, I felt compelled to write stories, poetry, music, with a spiritual bent, a mythical flavor, a growth orientation. And these writings were all about the same thing Knowing Your Self; Being True to Your Self; Waking up to Soul; Childrens Spirituality; Song Lyrics and Reflections.

From these writings came my first book of Parables, then another, and another, until I had six manuscripts on this subject; and yes, song lyrics for about 125 songs to this point. Mythology, Spirituality and Personal Growth were now moving through me.

So what is trying to be born through you, friend? What are your gifts and passions telling you? Creativity is a challenge, but were all built to handle it. Our inherent design, as spiritual-physical beings, drives us to create. Watch children. They create without inhibition. It is their nature. Well its ours too. And well resume this discussion in Part 4 and bring this course to a conclusion.

Maurice Turmel PHD is an Author, Speaker and Performing Songwriter. His site features Self-Help books, Inspiring Music, Stories, Reflections and Poetry that can help YOU discover how tr uly great YOU are. The WebSite is dedicated to that end. It also features his collection of articles, reflections and stories as teaching tools, and his latest Ebook, The Voice, a Spiritual Sci-Fi novel. It will introduce YOU to all the basic concepts that characterize The Healthy Life, both Spiritually and Psychologically. http://www.mauriceturmel.com

Author:: Maurice Turmel
Keywords:: Inspiration, Motivation, Psychology, Mythology, Parables, Communication, personal & spiritual growth
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Tara and Phoenicia

Tara:

There are many places named Tara in far-flung regions of the world. Near the city of Bruttium in Italy we have one such town or city during the time of Pythagoras and I think this following piece that addresses this spiritual Keltic place is connected with Pythagoras through the likes of his Dean of Studies named Abaris the Druid.

The Sun god, Mithras, was the most widely worshipped deity in the Roman Empire in the first century when Christianity was first forming. Mithras was called the Son of God, the light of the world, he was a redeemer and savior and his birthday was celebrated on December twenty-fifth. He eventually died and was buried in a cave and was resurrected three days later. Sound familiar? Constantine is said to have converted to Christianity but that is pure Spin from the editor of the Bible. He was a Mithras worshipper and they are Heliopolitans or Luciferians just like Hitler and his torch-bearer crap. IESA is in Iesoos of the fish symbo l and IXOYE as well as many other pre-Christian things they appropriated; which the Father of Biblical Archaeology says shows the Bible is a 'Phoenician literary legacy'. It is not the first time you have heard about it.

Iesa also can be shown in Zeus and Hijaz or even Giza or Gizeh when you understand the aspirant 'H' which still allows people to pronounce Jesus as Hey-soos or Julio as Who-lio. The lack of J in most pre-Christian alphabets is important and we can learn a lot about words when we take out the vowels and look for doubling or reversing consonants. I think doubling shows a removal from the original so we see Bible and Babel and Byblos are all from BL or Bel and Baal whose city or bek is very ancient indeed.

So a Jew includes all those noble arch-tectons (see Septuagint) who built the Pyramid - that means all elites. And elites have been known to use their FLOCK as sword or cannon fodder. Hitler learned about this ancient culture of Wotan, Iesa, the < a href='http://www.amazon.com/rss/tag/Vaner/new?tag=day2soft-20'title= 'Vaner: Newly tagged products at Amazon.com' target='_blank' style='font-size: large'>Vaner and the Gaedhils who are the builders of the Pyramid in pre-Hyksos time.

Conor Newman, an archaeology lecturer at the National University of Ireland at Galway, located the subterranean temple of Tara. Since 1992, Newman has been working on the Hill of Tara preparing a survey of the area for the state-funded Discovery Program. He found the Tara monument using an underground radar device. It fills a very important place in the jigsaw because it allows us to make sense of the distribution of other monuments all around it, says Newman.1

The Discovery Program, set up under the auspices of the Heritage Council, carried out a survey of the Hill of Tara between 1992 and 1996 when Mr. Newman was director.

When Mr. Newman moved to Galway he continued to be involved in the project. Using sophistic ated technology, he and his team of experts mapped what was underground. Like Theseus, they seek the secrets of the labyrinth-dwelling Mino-Taur, the King of Tara. The work is slow and tedious, because it has yielded such a huge amount of information.

What they uncovered eventually at the crown of the hill was a huge, oval-shaped monument measuring about 170 meters at its widest point. Around it are 300 postholes measuring two meters wide. Evidence indicates this `Crown' (tiara) of Tara was constructed through an enormous effort. 300 towering oak posts once surrounded the hill.

We think it probably dates from 2500 to 2300 BC and still had a big physical presence even after the posts were taken out or rotted, Mr. Newman said.2

This is the approximate time of Abraham, the son of Terah who became the patriarch of Judaism, Christianity and Islam (the three religions at the root of the holy War on Terror).

His Oaks of Mamre were well known and long revered .3 Credible evidence of them has never been discovered in the Holy Land. However, in Ireland clear evidence is found at Tara.

Legend says Abraham's oaks existed from the beginning of the world, and used to be green and bear leaves until his descendent Jesus died, when it and all sacred oaks were cut down.

Jesus (called Pan-Tara, `god of Tara') is known in ancient Irish history as Iessa, a name derived from I.A. or E.A. (pronounced Eye-a), the Sumerian creator god who was portrayed wearing a fish suit. Lord Melchizedek, the Pope-king of Jerusalem (Ire-u-salem) and forerunner of Christ who initiated Abraham and his wife, Sarah,4 is equated with E.A. The Irish called him the sun god Fin (an Irish name for the Sun), a pun on fish. The Irish are called the Children of the Sun, because in Egypt Ra, the Ray or the Ra-Eye is the Sun. Ra's symbol is an eye. Hence, the term Iris or Irish.

Fin (E.A.) presided over the Tara assembly, as a Druid in strangely flowered ga rments, and with a double-pointed head-dress and bearing in his hand a book. His two-headed miter of fishy form, his upright rod, spotted or checkered garment and basket in hand, are symbols that align him with E.A. His column (i, eye) or pillar of Tara is remembered as the Tree of Life of numerous traditions. (1)

My continuing research includes the clandestine associations of John Toland and various English Lords in control of Ireland. They include a Lord Southwell whose family had possession of certain Irish books that the English would not allow the Irish to possess or read. It appears he was able to wend a story about a time when Gaul was more important than Ireland and represent Ireland as a serfdom thereof, in his book The History of the Druids. Toland came to this effort that included various Royal Society and Ashmolean Museum members of the Rosicrucian fraternity with a special expertise in Hebrew and Irish linguistic studies. This in itself is interesting due to the connection of their Phoenician similarities and roots. The fact that he begins his book with reference to the most important personage named Abaris the Druid or Hyperborean is most relevant. I have discovered Abaris can be translated as Rabbi and I believe his sun worship credentials noted by Toland are entirely important to the Luciferian or Ostrogothic people whose nobles have ruled so much of this world for all of recent history. (2)

Alexanders father defeated Scythia and prepared the plan or was part of that plan that saw Alexander do what he did including have many of his generals or backers marry Persians. Darius is seen on coins in the so-called New World too. I think in a far earlier time these people where both in the same noble family and they knew this and planned to re-kindle their dominion over the whole world.

Are they intent on keeping us in the dark and treating us like mushrooms for some ulterior reason? Mushrooms thrive on manure but huma ns perform better when provided firsthand information rather than manipulative, trite and false statistics that compare us against others. We must authenticate authority and it must demonstrate a creative and loving purpose before we entitle it to lead us into the vast horizons of creative universe which arent (and never were) limited by some Malthusian economic model. They also aren't limited by the potential to destroy us, when you consider biotechnology, nanotechnology, mind-control, robots with human and other biological components as well as the usual greed and power needs of insecure deviates.

Author of many books available at Lulu and World-Mysteries.com

Author:: Robert Baird
Keywords:: Phoenician, Red Heads, Tara, Pythagoras, Gaedhils, Vaner
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Othello Shakespeare Play Essay Review

Although it was produced in 1604, William Shakespeares play Othello still relates to the everyday situations of certain people. In the play, Shakespeare gives the reader situations of misguided trust, wrongful mistrust, and overpowering love. All of which are still around in modern lives, especially that of my own.

Today it often occurs that people tend to keep their enemies closer than their friends. This is done in hopes that the person can undermine his enemy with friendly persuasion to participate in a wrong doing rather than using brute force. In the story, Iago befriends Othello in hopes of one day gai ning Cassios position of Lieutenant. Because he feels overlooked for the position, Iago convinces Othello that his wife Desdemona has cheated on him with Cassio to ruin the trust Othello and Cassio have for each other. This has also happened in my life; when I was dating my last girlfriend, a guy at school, or my so called Iago, tried his hardest to become my friend and convince me that my girlfriend was cheating on me with my best friend. The situation even got to the point where he had tried to plant evidence to prove his accusations.

As a result of the false friendships, there was also an added mistrust towards the women of both Othellos and my own lives. When Iago hid the handkerchief in Cassios possession, Othello asked Desdemona if she had her handkerchief and of course she could not find it; Othello then begins to accept Iagos accusations of Desdemonas unfaithfulness, and like Othello, I also began to wonder if my girlfriend might actually be unfaithful to me .

You may visit http://www.TermPaperAdvisor.com and http://www.TermPapersMadeEasy.com for instant access to over 45,000 plus term papers and essays. You may have all of these quality papers for only $19.95. We have thousands of Shakespeare papers.

Author:: Michael Cooper
Keywords:: Othello, Shakespeare
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